The efficient market hypothesis and behavioral finance

The efficient market hypothesis and behavioral finance The efficient market hypothesis is directly related to the behaviour of prices in asset markets. Initially the term efficient market applied only to the stock market, but later it was generalised to other asset markets. The efficient market hypothesis is seen as the turning point of the modern finance (Fama, 1965) and in his classic paper, Fama (1970) defined efficient market as one in which security always fully reflect the available information [p.383]. Market efficiency is known as the speed and accuracy where the current market prices reflect the investor expectations. When the market is efficient, all the available information is fully and automatically reflected in the price, gaining profit by using this information is seen impossible. Efficient market hypothesis predicts that market price should incorporate all available information at any point in time. According to Pesaran, Hashem M (2010) The efficient market hypothesis (EMH) evolved in the 1960s from the random walk theory of asset prices advanced by Samuelson (1965). Samuelson showed that in an informationally efficient market hypothesis, price changes must be unforecastable. Kendall (1953), Cowles (1960), Osborne (1959), Osborne (1962), and many others had already provided statistical evidence on the random nature of equity price changes. Samuel-sons contribution was, however, instrumental in providing academic respectability for the hypothesis, despite the fact that the random walk model had been around for many years; having been originally discovered by Louis Bachelier, a French statistician, back in 1900. One important implication is that security prices will change only when there is arrival of new information that was not considered during the formation of current market prices. Yet the information will be evaluate and process this information efficiently and immediately incorporate into the security prices. The crucial questions here is the relevant information because it needs careful analysis and the conclusion about market efficiency could be there or extracted from the information set. A standard classification for different compositions or information set was outlined by Fama (1970) as weak form, semi-strong form and strong form. On the other hand, new empirical studies of security prices have reversed some of the earlier findings related to EMH. The traditional finance school named these observation anomalies due to the unexplainable in the neoclassical framework. Due to the increasing numbers of puzzles, the new approach of behavioural finance emerged. This approach focus on the investors behaviour in making decision in investment. This approach assumes that agents may be unreasonable during interpreting new information and thus lead to making wrong judgement in investment. This paper will discuss the definition and concept of efficient market hypothesis and behavior finance in general. I will be look into market issues for countries of Malaysia, USA, Africa and Jordan. I would then like to highlight the issues on this area for future research. Efficient Market Hypothesis Definition and Concept The Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) is an investment theory that stated it is impossible to compete with the market when stock market efficiency causes existing share prices to always incorporate and reflect all relevant information. According to the EMH, stocks are always trade at their fair value on stock exchanges. Investors will face difficulties or even impossible in either purchase undervalued stocks or sell stocks for inflated prices. The possible way for investors to obtain higher returns is by purchasing riskier investment and they have to outperform the overall market through expert stock selection or market timing. Forms of Efficient Market Hypothesis There are three forms of Efficient Market Hypothesis where the key to all the three forms remain that is intense competition among investors to gain profit from any new information. There are three versions of EMH, namely the Weak From EMH, Semi Strong EMH and Strong EMH. The weak form EMH is based on past history of prices where the past information is used to analyze for profit return. This method is called technical analysis. The value retrieved from technical analysis is strong and consistent. On the other hand in semi strong form, the current stock price has fully taken into consideration all publicly information that is available. However, the information in the semi strong form is available to all the investors; one is expected not to gain much profit with such information. But this form is stronger than the weak form. Whereas strong form of EMH is taking the current price fully incorporates all existing inside information, both public and private. When the information set us limited to past price and return, the market is said to be weak-from efficient and there is correlation between current return on security and the return over a previous period. However the return is purely unpredictable from the past information. In semi strong Efficient Market Hypothesis, all publicly available information is reflected in the stock market. Investment Managers claim that mutual fund managers are skilled in analyzing publicly available information but empirical evidence do not support. Market Efficiency and security prices reflect all available information whereas new information is expected to be converted into price changes. Efficient Capital Market participants will react immediately and in an unbiased manner. Important of Efficient Market Hypothesis There are common misconceptions of Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH). EMH claims that investors cannot outperform the market but there are analysts who have succeed in outperformed. So EMH is seen to be incorrect. EMH claims that one should not be expected to outperform the market predictably or consistently. EMH said that financial analysis is pointless and investors are wasting time if doing research in security price. But everyone knows that financial analyst is still needed in the market. Again EMH is found to be incorrect. EMH sees new information as always fully reflected in market places and yet prices fluctuated every day, every hour and minutes. EMH must be incorrect. EMH presumes that all investors are technically expert but in reality it is otherwise. EMH is incorrect again. Criticism towards Efficient Market Hypothesis There are several opinions against the EMH. First is the over reaction and under reaction of investors. EMH claims that the investor react quickly and in an unbiased manner to new information but it was contradicted to De Bont and Thaler. EMH claims that investors react very fast and in an unbiased manner when they received information but De Bond and Thaler said otherwise. They said that stock with long term past return tend to have a higher future returns and vice versa and empirical observation shows that stock prices respond to earning about a year after the announcement. Secondly, the value versus growth where value strategy is able to outperform the market consistently. Finally is the small firm effects where average return on small stocks were too large to be justified by the CAPM while the average returns on large stocks were too low. There are also implications of Market Efficient for Investors where the EM, investors have little to gain from active management strategies; should follow passive investment strategy and no attempts to beat the market but to optimize returns through diversification and asset allocation. Behavioral Finance Definition and Concept The behavioural finance is an area in finance that highlighted on the investors behaviour and how they make their decision in understanding the pricing of assets and also explain the decisions of investors as rational actors. The rational actors are seeking for their self-interest, given the sometimes inefficient nature of the market. EMH revolves around the preferences and behaviour. Psychologist and also experiment economics found out that there is a departure from the normal paradigm of the investors in making their investments. Behaviour finance emerged since 1980 where it incorporates more behaviour science into finance decision making. Due to the excess volatility, dividend puzzle, equity premium and future returns in the capital market is seen as consistent in an efficient market but the truth is inconsistency do happen. According to behaviour finance good year performance may not lead to another good year but it could be otherwise. Issues in Behavioral Finance Behavioral finance has emerged due to the problems faced in the traditional theory in explaining why some financial phenomena happened. It is said that agents may be irrational in with their own reactions to new information and investment decisions. To undo mispricing created by the irrational investors may be difficult. Due to that, market is seen to inefficient. Psychological sees these in many views. People make mistakes when they perceive information and form their belief. Extensive evidence shows that individuals are overconfident in their judgement (Odean (1998), Barber ODean (2001)). When investors are overconfident, they tend to invest more and intensively. Due to greed, overconfident and also overreact to new information, investors would tend to make heavy losses. What make it difficult it when investors stick to their own conclusion interpreting the information. Once people have formed an opinion, they often stick to it and inadequately update their beliefs in the lieu of new information (Edwards (1968)). Human emotions and moods are also said to influence investors behavior. When investors are in the good mood they are willing to take higher risks compared to when they are in bad mood. In fact market returns are found to be higher on days of good weather than on days with heavy clouds and rain. Social influence and interaction with other investors are also coherent to th e behavior. Investors tend to follow others in making their investment, they tend to follow each other like in a herd. Herding leads more on the situation when an investor focuses more on other investors participation rather than evaluating the information of the particular security. Behavior finance changes the way how we look at capital markets. It is a new approach that has direct impact not only to investors but also others such as corporate finance, market regulators and policy makers. In behavior finance, the investors should not consistently expect to beat the market even at times when they succeed in getting abnormal returns from their investment. According to behavior finance, market is not always efficient. Good return may due to the available information. However, it is advised to actually spend some of the return and study the cause of mispricing that have cause the market to fluctuates. It is said that achieving higher returns is not only due to good analysis strategies but a better self control. Primary contribution of behavior finance is its potential help in beating the market. Summary of Researches This section will discuss the research finding from Malaysia ( KP Lim., Liew KS., and Wong HT, 2003), Africa (C Mlambo and N Biekpe, 2007) United States America (Jae H. Kim 2009) and Jordan (Mahdi M. Hadi, 2006) The first research which was done by Lim et. al, 2003 was the weak form EMH that generally holds in KLSE Malaysia and the existence of the linear and the non-linear dependencies. These dependencies appear at very random intervals for a short of time but then disappear again even before investors have the chance to exploit it. As we know efficient market hypothesis is a fair game where the prices changes in the security is reflected by any new information which was not taken into consideration earlier during the forming of current market price. The paper by Lim et al, 2003 focused on the weak form EMH where the historical price is the only determinant of the security prices. The price movement in a weak form occur randomly and successive price changes are independent of one another, i.e. random walk theory. Past price analysis has no meaning since the patterns observed in the past occurred purely by chance. The weak form Efficient Market Hypothesis has been studied since many years in KLSE. Malaysian stock market is inefficient in the weak form when weekly data were used but efficiency exist when monthly data were used. Test done by Von Nehmanns suggested that information that is based on historical prices is fully reflected in current price within a week but may not be fully impounded in current price within a day which conclude that Second Board of KLSE is weak form efficient with respect to weekly data. But when weekly data were used the efficiency of the Malaysian stock market has improved from a weak form inefficient market in mid 1980s to weak form efficient by late 80s and early 90s. Empirical evidence from various statistical test found out that the low trading volumes in most stocks and the possible price manipulations by those investors who own majority of the stocks might help to explain the findings of the runs test. The reason for departure from random walk is due to the presence of non-linear dependencies in the underlying data generating process which is now widely accepted as a salient feature of financial returns in general and stock returns series in particular. Non linearity has strong implication on the weak form EMH for it implies the potential of predictability in financial returns. Lim et. al (2003b.d) and Lim and Tan (2003) provided convincing evidence that non-linearity has a high effect in the underlying dynamics of the Malaysian stock market. Ko and Lee (1991:224) If the Random Walk Theory hypothesis holds, the weak form of efficient market but not vice versa. Thus evidence supporting the random walk model is the evidence of market efficiency. But violation of the random walk model need not be evidence of market inefficiency in the weak form. Kok and Lee (1994) and Kok and Goh (1995) argued that though daily price series are found to be serially correlated, the magnitude of their c orrelations is not large enough for any mechanical trading rules to be devised for profitable investment timing. In connection to the existence of linear/non-linear dependency structures to the concept of information arrival and market reactions to that information will prove to enlightening. It is said that if the market is efficient and the new information is useful then it shall be reflected quickly and unbiasedly into market prices. There is a rationalization the correlation between the weak-form EMH and behavioural finance in KLSE. The statistical properties of random walk, linear and non-linear dependencies are interpreted in the context of information arrival and how the market react to that information. The second research was done by C Mlambo and N Biekpe, 2007 with regard the weak form in the African Stock Market. Johannesburg Stock Exchange is found to be weak form efficient but using weekly data it is not weak form efficient. Studies that have used data on individual stocks used either monthly or weekly data rather than daily data due to non availability of computerised databases. Another argument for using data measured over longer time intervals in the problem of thin trading. Increasing the time interval is argued to reduce the potential biases associated with thin-trading by increasing the probability of having at least one trade in the interval. (Dickinson and Muragu, 1994). This paper studies the weak form efficiency of ten African stock markets using the serial correlation and runs tests African stock market emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s and the latest in 2003. African stock exchanges are also the smallest in the world in terms of both number of listed stocks and market capitalisation. The majority of stock markets in Africa trade daily from Monday to Friday. The portfolio inflows to Africa have been disappointing due to unfavourable scenario is that acquisition of shares by foreigners is limited on some African stock markets. The Market Regulator was established on the back of poor regulatory and legislative frameworks. African stock markets are also known to be illiquid and characterised by thin trading (Mlambo and Biekpe, 2005) in comparison to stock markets in other regions. The delay market is perceived by African governments to be an indication of integration into the global economy. It is considered to be a sign of international legitimacy and a measure of a countrys modernisation and commitment to private sector-led development (Moss, 2004). The d ata used in this study are daily closing stock prices and volume traded for individual stocks. The markets in this study exhibit serious thin-trading for the periods under investigation. Positive serial correlation is usually considered to be a predictability phenomenon of the short run, while negative serial correlation is mostly a long run predictability phenomenon. The positive serial correlation on African Stock markets might also be a result of institutions imitating spreading their trades over several days to lessen the impact of trades in large volumes on the market (Asal, 2000). The weak market form efficiency if the NSX can probably be explained by the markets positive correlation with the JSE due to the significant number of stocks that are dual-listed on both markets. The efficiency of the NSX can thus be said to be spill over from, or a reflection of, the weak-form efficiency of the JSE. The weak form efficiency of the NSX was attributed to its correlation with the JSE. Kenya and Zimbabwe were also concluded as generally weak form efficient, since a significant number of stocks conformed to the random walk. The stock prices on the Mauritius market tend to deviate from the random walk hypothesis. The same conclusion was made for Ghana. The run test used here only tests for the existence of a linear relationship which makes it inadequate as a testing method on African stock markets where the return generating processes are assumed to be nonlinear. The use of linear models would thus lead to wrong inferences being drawn. Thus further research is required to test the random walk hypothesis. The third research that I would like to discuss is the market hypothesis in the United States America. Kim et al., (2009), study return predictability of the daily and weekly Dow-Jones Industrial Average indices from 1900 to 2009. The degree of return predictability is estimated using two autocorrelation test (variance ratio and portmanteau) statistics, implementing moving sub-sample windows of different lengths. They found strong evidence that changing of market condition has lead to return predictability. In particular, during market crashes (1929 and 1987), it was observed that return in unpredictable and when it is predictable it is very much associate with high level of doubt. When there is economic crisis, the return from the stock is very predictable even with moderate degree of uncertainty. Whereas during economic bubbles, return predictability and its uncertainty have been smaller than normal times. Our results are in strong support of the adaptive markets hypothesis, which claim that changing market conditions drive the key market features such as the return predictability. They examine the degree of return predictability of the U.S. stock market using the century-long Dow-Jones industrial index. As measures of return predictability, they used their findings and complements with the recent study by Neely et al. (2009) who report the evidence in favour of the adaptive markets hypothesis for the foreign exchange market in the context of profitability of technical trading rules. The statistics from the automatic variance ratio and automatic portmanteau tests. To detect possible non-linear dependence in stock return, the generalized spectral test has been implemented. They obtain monthly time-varying measures of return predictability by applying these tests to moving sub-sample windows over monthly grids. A regression analysis is conducted to determine how these measures of return predictability are related to changing market conditions and economic fundamentals. They also find evidence for cyclical evolution of return predictability, in which changing market conditions are important factors for the degree of return predictability. It is found that, during market crashes, no return predictability is evident but its uncertainty has been exceptionally high. However, during economic and political crises, a high degree of return predictability is observed, but only with moderate degree of uncertainty. During bubble times, the return predictability and its uncertainty are found to be lower than normal times. Contrary to the general findings of past empirical and survey studies, we have found evidence the U.S. market has become more efficient after 1980. This is convincing given that the U.S. market has implemented a various measures of market innovations in the 1960s and 19070s, and that US macroeconomic fundamentals have become much more stable since 1980. In addition, there have been fewer occurrences of economic and political crises after 1980 than before. Our finding is a manifestation of the adaptive markets hypothesis, which argues that dynamic market conditions govern the degree of stock market efficiency. Finally this paper will discuss on efficient market hypothesis in Jordan capital market. This paper by M. Hadi (2006) noted that the objective of accounting numbers is to provide the financial data about the performance of certain enterprise in order to help the managers, investors, shareholders and government authorities in making their decisions. On the other hand, the purpose of accounting research is to estimate the value of accounting data to all investors and other users. Furthermore, the purpose of capital market research is to examine the association between accounting numbers and security return and to test whether or not accounting data carry any information content to security market, and if so it should be impounded in the security price, the results show the security market reacted with mixed signal on releasing profitability, liquidly, and solvency information. This paper identified EMH and provided some detail on the types of EMH, as well as identifying the empirical research that tested weak, semi-strong and strong forms of market efficiency. Accounting market based research more often assumes that market is efficient in semi-strong form, and the reason for this is that financial reports are considered public information once they are released to the market. In this paper empirical evidence has been provided from Jordanian market, and it shows the security market reacted with mixed signal on releasing profitability, liquidly, and solvency information. The selection of the relevant pricing model is very critical in market-based research. Brown and Warner (1980) investigate how different methods performed when some abnormal performance was present. They conclude that There is no evidence that more complicated methodology conveys any benefit. (Brown and Warner, 1980). Also, they argue that using more complicated models will make the researc her worse off. Furthermore, the use of the market model or even simple models such as mean adjusted return is better than more complicated models like control portfolio. 5.0 Conclusion The relationship between finance and other social sciences that has become known as behavioural finance has led to a strong and deepen of our knowledge of financial market. In judging the impact of behavioural finance to date, there is still no exact one method that can make an investors gain high profit. For instance in situation where efficient markets theory may lead to drastically incorrect interpretations of events such as major stock market bubbles. . Indeed, we have to divert our presumption that financial markets always work well and that price changes always reflect genuine information. Evidence from behavioral finance helps us to understand, for example, that the recent worldwide stock market boom, and then crash after 2000, had its origins in human foibles and arbitrary feedback relations and must have generated a real and substantial misallocation of resources. The challenge for economists is to make this reality a better part of their models. It is found that in Malaysia, there is co existence of weak form EMH and behavioural finance. Unlike in Africa, there are mix of two findings where conforms to the random walk theory and also deviate from the theory. Whereas in United States, it is claim that return predictability and market efficiency and investors behaviour are considered as highly context dependent and dynamic by changing market conditions. Whereas in Jordanian market shows the security market reacted with mixed signal on releasing profitability, liquidly, and solvency information. Further research is suggested in Malaysia to incorporate the issue of model adequacy where the characteristic was found in the returns series and can be used to construct a better economic model. Whereas in Africa it is suggested to test on the existence of linear relationship in the stock markets where the return generating processes are assumed to be linear. In Kuwait, a few research has been investigated in market efficiency in strong form, it is suggested that for future research test for insider information should be investigated.

Training Report on Autocad

CONTENTS ?Introduction to AutoCAD ?GUI of AutoCAD ?Commands in AutoCAD ?Layers ?Viewports ?Exercises †¢Sample – 1 †¢Sample – 2 †¢Sample – 3 †¢Sample – 4 †¢Sample – 5 ?3D in AutoCAD ?3D commands ?3D Exercises †¢Sample – 1 †¢Sample – 2 AutoCAD AutoCAD, developed by Autodesk Inc. , is the most popular PC – CAD system available in the market. This design package is a general purpose computer aided design and drafting application for your computer. The speed and ease with which a drawing can be prepared and modified using a computer offer a phenomenal advantage over hand preparation.Here I’m going to mention a few of the applications for which AutoCAD is being used today:- †¢Architectural drawings of all kinds. †¢Interior designs on facility planning. †¢Drawings for Electronics, Chemical, Civil, Mechanical, Automotives and Aerospace engineering applications. †¢Theatre set lighting designs. †¢Line drawing for the Fine Arts, Textiles, Fashion and Dress designing. Some other CAD packages developed by the same company are:- †¢Auto Shade †¢Auto Flix †¢Auto Ketch †¢Animator †¢3D Studio AutoCAD ScreenVarious components of the initial AutoCAD screen are drawing area, command window, menu bar, several toolbars, model and layouts, and the status bar (Fig. 1). A title bar that has AutoCAD symbol and the current drawing name is displayed on top of the screen. Figure 1 AutoCAD Screen ? SCREEN COMPONENTS Drawing Area The drawing area covers the major portion of the screen. Here we can draw the objects and use the commands. To draw the objects, we need to define the coordinate points, which can be selected by using our pointing device Command Window Figure 2 Command WindowThe command window at the bottom of the drawing area has the command prompt where we can enter the commands. It also displays the subsequent prompt sequences and the messages. We can change the size of the window by placing the cursor on the top edge and then dragging it Application Status Bar Figure 3 Application Status Bar The Status Bar is displayed at the bottom of the screen (Fig. 3). It contains some useful information and buttons that will make it easy to change the status of some AutoCAD functions. We can toggle between on and off states of most of these functions by choosing them. Coordinates The coordinates information is displayed on the left corner of the Status Bar. We can select this coordinate button to toggle between on and off states. If the COORDS system variable controls the type of display of coordinates. ?Snap Mode The snap mode allows you to move the cursor in fixed increments. If snap mode is on, the Snap Mode button is chosen in the Status Bar; otherwise it is not displayed. ?Grid Display The grid lines are used as a reference lines to draw objects in AutoCAD. If the Grid Display button is chosen, the grid lines are displ ayed on the screen. Ortho Mode If the Ortho Mode button is chosen in the Status Bar, we can draw lines at right angles only. ?Polar Tracking If we turn the polar tracking on, the movement of cursor is restricted along a path based on set as the polar angle settings. Choosing the Polar Tracking button in the Status Bar turns it on. Remember that turning the polar tracking on, automatically turns off the ortho mode. ? ?Object Snap When the Object Snap button is chosen in the Status Bar, we can use the running object snaps to snap a point. ?Allow/Disallow Dynamic UCSChoosing the button allows or disallows the use of dynamic UCS. Allowing the dynamic UCS ensures that the XY plane of the UCS got dynamically aligned with the selected face of the model. ?Dynamic Input The Dynamic input button is used to turn the Dynamic Input on or off. Turning it on facilitates the heads-up design approach because all commands, prompts and the dimensional inputs will now be displayed in the drawing area a nd we do not need to look at the command prompt all the time. This saves the design time and also increases the efficiency of the user. ?Show/Hide LineweightChoosing this button in the Status Bar allows you to turn on or off the display of lineweights in the drawing. ?Model The Model button is chosen by default because you are working in the model space to create drawings. ?Annotation Scale The annotation scale controls the size and display of the annotative objects in the model space. The Annotation Scale button has a drop-down list that displays all the annotation scales available for the current drawing. ?Annotation Visibility This button is used to control the visibility of the annotative objects that do not support the current annotation scale in drawing area. Automatically Add Scale This button, if chosen, automatically adds all the annotation scales that are set current to all the annotative objects present in the drawing. ?Quick Properties If you select a sketched entity whe n this button is chosen in the Status Bar, the properties of selected entity will be displayed in a panel. ? COMMANDS LINE Line command is used to draw a continuing series of line segments, but each line segment is a separate object. We can invoke the LINE command from the Draw toolbar, as shown in fig. 4 Figure 4 Draw ToolbarWe can also invoke the LINE command by entering LINE or L at the command prompt. Once you have invoked the LINE command, the next prompt, the Specify first point, requires us to specify the starting point. After first point is selected, AutoCAD will prompt you to enter the second point at the Specify next point prompt. At this point we may continue to select points or terminate the LINE command by pressing ENTER, ESC, or the SPACEBAR. The prompt sequence of invoking LINE command is as follows: Command: LINE > Enter Specify first point: Move the cursor (mouse) and left click to specify the first point.Specify next point or [Undo]: Move the cursor and left click to specify the second point. Specify next point or [Undo]: Specify the third point. Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: Enter. (Press ENTER to exit LINE command. ) XLINE The XLINE command can be used to draw construction or projection lines. These lines are the lines that aid in construction or projection and are drawn very lightly, when manually drafting. An xline (construction line) is a 3D line that extends to infinity at both ends. As the line is infinite in length, it does not have any end points.The prompt sequence of invoking the XLINE command is as follows: Command: XLINE > Enter Specify a point or [Hor/Ver/Ang/Bsect/Offset]: Specify an option or select a point through which the xline will pass. PLINE The PLINE command is used to draw a polyline. A polyline is a line that has different features. The term POLYLINE can be broken into two parts: POLY and LINE. POLY means â€Å"many†. This signifies that a poly line can have many lines. Some features of polylines are list ed next. Polylines can be thick lines with a desired width. They are very flexible and can be used to draw any shape, such as a filled circle or a doughnut.Polylines can be used to draw objects in any line type. Advanced editing commands can be used to edit them (for example, the PEDIT command). The command prompt for invoking the PLINE command is as follows: Command: PLINE < Enter Specify start point: Specify the starting point or enter its coordinates. Current line width is nn. nnn Current line width is nn. nnn is displayed automatically, which indicates the width of the polyline drawn. If we need a different width, invoke the Width option at the next prompt and set it. Next the following prompt is displayed.Specify next point or [Arc/Halfwidth/Length/Undo/Width]: Specify next point or enter an option. POLYGON A regular polygon is a closed geometric figure with equal sides. The number of side varies from 3 to 1024. For example, a triangle is a three sided polygon and a pentagon is a five sided polygon. In AutoCAD, the POLYGON command is used to draw regular 2D polygons. A polygon is said to be inscribed when it is drawn inside an imaginary circle and its vertices touch the circle. Likewise, a polygon is circumscribed when it is drawn outside imaginary circle and sides of polygon are tangent to circle.We can easily choose one option from these two available options during the invoking process. The prompt sequence of invoking POLYGON command is given next. Command: POLYGON < Enter Enter number of sides : Enter a value between 3 and 1024. Specify center of polygon: Specify the center point or enter its coordinates. Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/Circumscribed about circle]: Enter I or C. Specify radius of circle: Specify the radius of circle, which will inscribe or circumscribe the polygon. RECTANG The RECTANG command is used to draw rectangles in AutoCAD.We can draw rectangles by specifying two opposite corners of the rectangle, by specifying the area an d the size of one of the sides, or by specifying the dimensions of rectangles. The prompt sequence of invoking RECTANG command is as follows: Command: RECTANG < Enter Specify first corner point or [Chamfer/Elevation/Fillet/Thickness/Width]: Specify first corner point or enter its coordinates. Specify other corner point or [Area/Dimensions/Rotation]: Specify opposite corner point or enter its coordinates. ARC An arc is defined as a part of a circle. In AutoCAD, it can be drawn using the ARC command.AutoCAD provides eleven different options to draw an arc. To view these options, click on Draw option in the Menu Bar, a flyout option will appear as shown in fig. 5 Figure 5 Options in Menu Bar for Creating an Arc The default setting is for creating a three point arc. The command prompt for invoking ARC command is as follows: Command: ARC < Enter Specify start point of arc or [Center]: Specify first point of arc or enter its coordinates. Specify second point of arc or [Center/End]: Specif y the through point for arc or enter its coordinates. Specify the end point of arc: Specify the end point or enter its coordinates.CIRCLE The CIRCLE command is used to draw circles. AutoCAD provides six different options to draw a circle. To view and choose from the available options, click on Draw option in the Menu Bar, a flyout will appear as shown in fig. 6 Figure 6 Options in Menu Bar for creating a Circle The default setting is for creating a circle with Center and Radius option. The other options can be invoked by entering the appropriate letter in the command window or by the method stated earlier. The prompt sequence for invoking CIRCLE command is stated next. Command: CIRCLE < EnterSpecify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: Specify center point or enter its coordinates. Specify radius of circle or [Diameter]: Enter the required value of radius. ELLIPSE If a circle is observed from an angle, the shape is called an ellipse, which can be created in AutoC AD using the ELLIPSE command. An ellipse can be created by two different options and these options are grouped together in the Draw option of the Menu Bar as shown in fig. 7 Figure 7 Options in Menu Bar for creating an Ellipse The default setting is for creating an ellipse with Axis and End point option.The Other options can be invoked by entering the appropriate letter in the command window or by method stated above. The prompt sequence for invoking ELLIPSE command is stated next. Command: ELLIPSE < Enter Specify axis endpoint of ellipse or [Arc/Center]: Enter coordinates of axis end point or choose an option. Specify other endpoint of axis: Specify other end point or enter its coordinates. Specify distance to the other axis or [rotation]: Specify the half length of second axis. ERASE After drawing some objects, you may need to erase some of them from the screen. To erase, we can use ERASE command in AutoCAD.This command is used exactly the same way as an eraser is used in manual d rafting to delete unwanted information. We can invoke ERASE command from the Modify toolbar Figure 8 Modify Toolbar When we invoke the ERASE command, a small box, known as pick box, replaces the screen cursor. To erase an object, move the pick box so that it touches the object. Select the object. AutoCAD confirms the selection by changing the selected objects into dashed lines and the select objects prompt returns again. We can continue selecting objects or press ENTER to terminate object selection and erase the selected objects.The prompt sequence is given next. Command: ERASE < Enter Select objects: Select first object. Select objects: Select second object. Select objects: Enter COPY The COPY command is used to copy an existing object. This command makes copies of the selected objects and places them at specified locations, but the orignals are left intact. In this command we need to select the objects and specify the base point. Next we need to specify the second point, this poin t is where we want the copied objects to be placed. The prompt sequence that is followed when you invoke COPY command is given next.Command: COPY < Enter Select objects: Select objects to copy. Select objects: Enter Specify base point or [Displacement/mOde] : Specify base point. Specify second point or : Specify a new position on the screen using pointing device or entering coordinates. Specify second point or [Exit/Undo] : Enter MIRROR The MIRROR command creates a mirror copy of the selected objects. The objects can be mirrored at any angle. This command is helpful in drawing symmetrical figures. This command is available in Modify toolbar but it can be invoked by using command window as well.When we invoke this command, AutoCAD prompts us to select the objects and then the mirror line. After we select the objects to be mirrored, AutoCAD prompts you to enter the first point of mirror line and the second point of mirror line. A mirror line is an imaginary line about which objects ar e reflected. We can specify the end point of mirror line by specifying points on screen or by entering their coordinates. The mirror line can be selected at any angle. The prompt sequence of invoking MIRROR command is given next. Command: MIRROR < Enter Select objects: Select objects to be mirrored. Select objects: EnterSpecify first point of mirror line: Specify the first endpoint. Specify second point of mirror line: Specify the second endpoint. Delete source objects? [Yes/No] : Enter Y for deletion, N for retaining the objects. OFFSET To draw parallel lines, concentric circles, arcs, curves, and so on, we can use the OFFSET command. This command creates another object that is similar to the selected one. Remember that we are allowed to select only one entity at a time to be offset. While offsetting an object, we can specify the offset distance and the side to offset, or we can specify a distance through which you want to offset the selected object.The prompt sequence which follow s when we invoke OFFSET command using command window is given next. Command: OFFSET < Enter Specify offset distance or [Through/Erase/Layer] : Specify the offset distance. { Through Option Using this option we do not need to specify a distance; we simply specify an offset point and the distance between them is stored as offset distance. Erase Option The Erase option is used to specify whether the source object has to be deleted or not. Layer Option Use the Layer option to specify whether the offset entity will be placed in the current layer or the layer of source object. Specify the object to offset or [Exit/Undo] : Specify the object to offset. Specify point on side to offset or : Specify a point on side to offset. Select object to offset or [Exit/Undo] : Select another object to offset or press Enter. ARRAY An array is defined as the method of creating multiple copies of the selected object and arranging them in a rectangular or circular fashion. In some drawings, we may need to s pecify an object multiple times in a rectangular or circular arrangement. For example, suppose you have to draw six chairs around a table.This job can be accomplished by drawing each chair seperately or by using the COPY command tomake multiple copies of the chair. But it is a very tedious process and also the alignment of the chairs will have to be adjusted. Using ARRAY command, all we need to do is create just one chair and the remaining five will be created and automatically arranged around the table by the ARRAY command. This method is more efficient and less time-consuming. ARRAY command can be invoked by different methods such as from Modify toolbar, or by making use of the Command Window, or from the Modify option of Menu Bar.RECTANGULAR ARRAY A rectangular array is formed by making copies of the selected object along the X and Y directions of an imaginary rectangle (along rows and columns). It can be created by selecting the Rectangular Array button in the array dialog box ( fig. 9) that appears on invoking ARRAY comand. ROWS This edit box is used to specify the number of rows in rectangular array. COLUMNS This edit box is used to specify the number of columns in the rectangular array. Figure 9 Rectangular Array option in Array dialog box Offset distance and direction AreaThe options under this area are used to define the distance between the rows and the columns and the angle of array. Row Offset. This edit box is used to specify the distance between the rows. We can either enter the distance value in this edit box or choose the Pick Row Offset button to define the row offset distance by specifying two points on screen. Column Offset. This edit box is used to specify the distance between the columns. We can either enter the distance value in this edit box or choose the Pick Column Offset button to define the column offset distance by specifying two points on screen.Angle of Arrray. This edit box is used to define the angle of array. This is the value b y which the rows and columns will be rotated. POLAR ARRAY A polar array is an arrangement of the objects around a point in a circular fashion. This kind of array is created by selecting the Polar Array button in the Array dialog box (fig. 10) that appears on invoking ARRAY command. Figure 10 Polar Array option in Arrray dialog box CENTER POINT The center point of the array is defined as the point around which the selected items will be arranged.It is defined as the center point of the imaginary circle on whose circumference the items will be placed. The coordinates of the center of array can be specified in the X and Y edit boxes. We can either enter the values in these edit boxes or select the center point of array from the screen using Pick Center Point button. Method and values Area The options under this area are used to set the parameters related to the method that will be employed to create the polar array. Method. This drop-down list provides us three methods for creating the polar array. These three methods are discussed next. Total number of items & Angle to fill.This method is used to create a polar array specifying number of items in array an the total included angle between the first and the last item. The number of items and the angle to be filled can be specified in the Total number of items and Angle to fill edit boxes respectively. We can also specify the angle to fill on screen by choosing Angle to fill button provided. Total number of items & Angle between items. This method is used when we want to create a polar array by specifying the total number of items in the array and the included angle between two adjacent items. The angle between items is also called as incremental angle.The number items and the angle between the items can be specified in the Total number of items and Angle between items edit boxes,respectively. We can also specify theangle between items on the screen by choosing Angle between items button. Angle to fill & Angle betw een items. This method is used when we want to specifyangle between the items and total angle to fill. In this case the number of items is not specified, but is automatically calculated using the total angle and angle between the items. The angle to fill and the angle between the items can be entered in their respective boxes. MOVESometimes the objects are not located where they should actually be. In these situations, we can use the MOVE command. This command allows you to move one or more objects from their current location to a new location. This change of location of the objects does not change their size or orientation. On invoking this command we are prompted to select objects to be moved and the base point. This base point is the reference point with which the object will be picked and moved. ? ROTATE Sometimes we requires an object or any sketch in angular position. the. In these situations, we can use the ROTATE command.This command allows you to rotate one or more objects from their current location to a specific angle. This change of of the objects does not change their size. On invoking this command we are prompted to select objects to be rotated and the base point. This base point is the reference point with which the object will be rotated. SCALE With the use of this command, we can increase or decrease the size of any object or a sketch. Sometimes we requires an object in numbers, only with the difference of sizes. So in this situation, we can use the SCALE command. This command allows you to scale one or more objects from the selected base point.On invoking this command we are prompted to select objects to be scaled and the base point. This base point is the reference point with which the object will be scaled. STRETCH With the use of this command, we can increase or decrease the size of some selected part of any object in a specific direction. In this command, the sketch is stretched as much we required. Sometimes we requires an object in numb ers, only with the difference of sizes some part of the sketched object. So in this situation, we can use the STRETCH command. This command allows you to stretch the objects from the selected base point.On invoking this command we are prompted to select the portion to be scaled with the help of green window and the base point. This base point is the reference point with which the object will be stretched. TRIM With the use of this command, we can remove the line or any sketched entity. In this command, the sketch is trimmed as much we required. It removes the extra drawn line or sketch as per our specific requirement. This command allows you to trim the objects from the selected side. On invoking this command, we have to right click in the drawing area and we are prompted to left click on the portion to be trimmed.EXTEND With the use of this command, we can increase the line the line upto the specific point or location. In this command, the sketch is extended as much we required. It removes the extra drawn line or sketch as per our specific requirement. On invoking this command, we have to right click in the drawing area and we are prompted to left click on the portion to be extend. BREAK AT A POINT With the use of this command, we can break the line at a point where we required. In this command, the sketch is broken from that point where we required. We can create the number of break points as much we required.On invoking this command, we have to select the line and after that click on that point from where we want to break the selected line, after using this command the line or any selected entity will be converted into numbers. BREAK With the use of this command, we can break the line with a specific distance or upto a specific point as much we required. On invoking this command, we have to select the point on the line and after that click on that point upto where we want to break the line. After using this command on the line or any selected entity, there will be space between the slelected points in the line or entity.JOIN With the use of this command, we can join the line drawn or placed in the same plane. On invoking this command, we have to select the first line and after that second line placed at the same plane and then right click. After using this command , there will be no space between the lines or entities. CHAMFER This command is used for removing the sharp corners. On invoking this command, we have to press A then ENTER, after that fill the distance and then ENTER, then fill the value of ANGLE and ENTER, after that select the line on which we want to create the chamfer. FILLETThis command is used for removing the sharp corners. On invoking this command, we have to press R then ENTER, after that fill the value and then ENTER, after that select the lines on which we want to create the radius. REGION This command is used for converting the relation of LINE into POLYLINE. Before using this command the sketch should be closed from all sides. On invoking this command, we have to select all lines and then right click. EXPLODE This command is used for converting the relation of POLYLINE into LINE. On invoking this command, we have to select the POLYLINE and then right click. EXERCISE NO 1:-

Mrs. Thomas: Holistic End of Life Care

Governors university Scenario A brief synopsis of the scenario explored in this paper will be forthcoming so the following observations and detail will have context. The key points in the scenario explored for Mrs.. Thomas, her husband and family are as follows. Mrs.. Thomas is a candidate for palliative care; In specifically hospice If she Is given a prognosis of six months or less. She has suffered breast cancer twice In the past year.A year ago she had a right mastectomy with removal of five auxiliary lymph nodes, with chemotherapy and radiation. Six months ago she had a second mastectomy on her left breast, followed by chemotherapy and radiation. After said treatment it was discovered that the cancer had metastasis's to her lungs and further surgery is not a feasible option. She has not been taking her pain medication as she does not want to procure an addiction problem. Her pain has Increased and she spends most of the time In bed crying.She had to leave her job, but has a small stipend via disability. She and her husband, a police officer, are struggling to make ends meet financially Her husband suffers from chronic depression that is being managed by medication, but he is resorting to take his medication often. He is a supportive and able caregiver however, he Is showing signs of caregiver strain and Job stress. In response Mrs.. Thomas Is worried that he Is becoming classical because of the circumstances of her condition and this In turn Is causing her further suffering. Core family support Is minimal.Mrs.. Thomas' close female relatives are dead from the very disease that is killing her. Because she is sick, she and her husband no longer socialize; she does not seek help from her female friends. Her sons live far away, and call often but they do not come to see her. Mrs.. Thomas is saddened that her sons are not here, but Quality of Life and Health Promotion This nurse believes that quality of life is defined individually for each patient. Each individ ual is unique and how they perceive life and what their life circumstances are define what is needed for end of life care.Quality of life during a time when aggressive treatment is no longer possible needs to be focused on comfort and support of the patient, caregivers and family. This nurse believes comfort (quality of life) includes the right to be free from pain, unless the patient chooses to experience main in trade for mental clarity. It includes the right to not participate in aggressive treatment or in clinical trials if the patient has no wish to do so. Quality of life to this nurse is helping the patient to do the best with the situation in life in which the patient finds themselves.It includes helping the patient with what he or she perceives as unfinished business and helping the patient conclude this business to the extent possible. Holistic end of life care includes care of all aspects of the patient (physical, social and spiritual) and care for those who love the one d ying?the family. The family is whatever blood or non-blood ties this entails; whatever â€Å"shape† of family the patient has at this time. This nurse believes that holistic end of life care encompasses not only physical comfort for the patient but promotion of healthy interactions for the patient with those who love and comfort them.These sensitivities are the goals of this nurse and if applied diligently may provide the best outcomes for the patient in this time of life. Strategies Four holistic nursing goals to begin to improve quality of life for Mrs.. Thomas, her husband and family are the nursing diagnoses: Pain Management, Addressing Anticipatory Grieving and Situational Low Self-Esteem, as well as, Altered Family Processes. First one must establish a rapport with the patient. By providing an open nonjudgmental conversation the nurse can encourage an open and realistic dialogue about what Mrs..Thomas is feeling. By reviewing past life experiences one can get to know th e patient and what interests her and establish trust. This trust is of most importance as all nursing care success depends on creating a team effort with the patient. Family involvement in this time needs to be proactive to help Mrs.. Thomas' mental state and via this her physical functional ability. Nurseries) A beginning conversation with Mrs.. Thomas needs to be about the importance of pain relief. By bringing the patient to an understanding of how this relief of pain will benefit those around her, Mrs..Thomas may be more likely to try the medication for said relief. This may be the initial hook with which one can get her to take said medication. The nurse must determine a comprehensive pain history, including frequency, duration and intensity using a scale dependent upon the patient's perception of pain throughout her life span. Zero pain for no pain; ten for the worst pain ever. This call gives the nurse a baseline from which to assess pain management. Her pain has been increas ing for the last six months and this nurse would designate that as chronic pain, perhaps with acute episodes.Also, the nurse must ask about and continue to monitor when said pain is occurring, as well as where and how much. Morning or when? Identifying precipitating factors of pain will help in its long term management. (Nurseries) Pain is what the patient says it is; we as nurses need to accept that premise. Within the realm of pain lie both physical and emotional response. Because Mrs.. Thomas is no longer seeking aggressive cancer treatment, he â€Å"variations of aggressive treatment† pain control will not be discussed.However, as her disease progresses it is most likely that her pain will increase. Which brings up another point?reluctance of the patient to report pain because of fear that the disease is worse or that the pain is deserved somehow. The nurse must also be aware of unmanageable side effects (like hallucination) which if experienced must be dealt with in a ma tter of fact fashion and by trying another medication regime. To address pain management with Mrs.. Thomas one must address her fear of addiction. By talking with Mrs..Thomas openly and honestly about the need for pain relief, it is hoped that she is lead to the conclusion that pain management and pain medication abuse are two different things. At the end of life, pain medication addiction is not an issue. This idea needs to be gently but openly professed. One could point to the relief of stress for her husband if she is not in pain; as well as the physical benefit (and hence mental benefit) of remaining pain free. If she remains pain free she will be more able to take care of herself and her activities of daily living.She will be able to live in this time instead of living in dread of each day. Once she is taking said pain medication it must be monitored, adjusted and changed as needed for optimal effect and to support the ability to participate in activities of daily living to the fullest as possible. Also discussing non-pharmacological comfort measures like massage and diversionary activities like music is in order. What does Mrs.. Thomas respond to; what does she like? What kinds of non-pharmacological pain intervention has worked for her in the past?Ask questions so that she can verbalize these things to help herself. Being able to relax will help her focus her attention. Encouragement of stress management skills and complimentary therapies (relaxation techniques, biofeedback, LAUGHTER, music, aromatherapy, acupressure, acupuncture and touch are a few) helps the patient to actively participate and enhances a sense of control. Heat and cold may also help by decreasing muscle spasms and inflammation. Pain makes stress, stress makes stiff muscles and increases self-focus which, unfortunately, increases pain.As the nurse interacts with the patient it is important that the patient comes up with ideas about care and becomes a proactive member of their healthcar e team. (Nurseries) Mrs.. Thomas is also suffering, â€Å"Anticipatory Grieving. This is related to loss of her physiological health and change in lifestyle. It is interconnected to the knowledge that she is going to die, for real, and most likely soon. This nursing diagnosis is needed because of her change in social activity level, her reluctance to tell her sons that she needs them?now.It is evidenced by her denial that she does need them and help and support in general from her friends. (Nurseries) Outcomes that are desired include the patient being able to feel her feelings and express them. By doing this she will hopefully come to the place where she is able to take one day t a time and continue her normal activities; even planning for the future. Being able to admit that she is dying, understanding and verbalizing the process is a beginning is done, she must feel supported in her grief work. One must beware of debilitating depression, the like of which is indicated by the sce nario.To address this the nurse must be frank and direct in asking questions about the patient's mind state. (Nurseries) Frequent visiting by the nursing team and care providers, family and social support of friends can help relieve feelings of isolation and abandonment. Her ones need to be contacted with a â€Å"for your information† talk about coming to see their mom (and dad) and possibly who could be of help with caregivers as it is needed. Mr.. Thomas is also a source to find out about who may be able to help with this care this, as well.The nursing diagnosis, â€Å"Situational Low Self-Esteem† is related to how Mrs.. Thomas feels about her disfiguring surgeries and subsequent treatment side effects (aliped, muscle wasting, and more) as well as feelings of self-doubt and lack of control in her life. It is about the doubt about being accepted by others–of still eyeing a human in the world. It is also about her anxiety and fear of her disease process. This is evidenced by her not taking responsibility for self-care (not taking pain medication; crying in bed all day. ) Acceptance of her situation is an outcome that is looked for.She needs to be able to develop mechanisms to cope with her problems and set realistic goals. What coping skills has she used in the past? She needs to be able to participate in her own life by learning to adapt. The nurse can help her through this process by asking proactive questions about how she feels and perceives her world. By getting her to voice where she's at, she will also perhaps start to voice how she can manage. (Nurseries) This diagnosis ties in with the aforementioned, â€Å"Anticipatory Grieving† diagnosis. By defining diagnosis and disease process beginning problem solving can occur.By anticipating what can happen, some measure of control can be taken. By working with Mrs.. Thomas and planning how daily activities can be managed, adaptation can occur. (Nurseries) Discussion about her roles in life, as a worker, spouse, and mother and problem solving about how to accomplish her goals for these roles may help reduce problems that interfere tit her self-esteem. It may help her to see how she can cluster activities at home to conserve energy but be productive. It may help her to be more able to reach out to those who love her for inclusion and support.The nurse must acknowledge troubles she is experiencing and validate the patient's reality; this opens the door to the patient being able to seek measures that are necessary to cope, like counseling, and support groups. The nurse should readily be able to supply information about said resources so as to facilitate the patient in procuring more support. If Mrs.. Thomas is n hospice the social worker of the interdisciplinary team can help facilitate and direct this work; but the nurse must always continue it during her visits. Holistic Nursing Plan Amongst personal revelation the nurse must explore who may be able to help Mrs ..Thomas with her activities of daily living. Her husband is doing the Job, but he is suffering from care giver strain and could use some help. It may be that the people she has cut herself off from socially miss her and would love the chance to be able to help in some way. Caregivers avenues and their affordability need to be explored before they are needed. These interactions; providing pain control, helping with grief and esteem issues, and helping the patient to discover what will work best to live disease state progresses, but before it is needed, preparation for a lesser level of self-care must be addressed.Medicare provides a â€Å"compassionate allowance† for hospice care for those of any age with a metastasis cancer with a prognosis of six months or less. She needs to apply for this care in the beginning of the nursing visits if she qualifies. To receive hospice care via Medicare she must be eligible for Medicare Part â€Å"A†, be certified as terminally ill a nd then apply for hospice care. This care would be in her home. By signing an election of benefits Mrs.. Thomas would be choosing hospice care in lieu of routine Medicare-covered benefits.Hospice would pay for pain medications and those required by her terminal diagnosis, as well as services included in the palliative plan of care. Often the hospice doctor confers with the patient's primary doctor and others on the hospice interdisciplinary team are included. (â€Å"Your Medicare benefits,† 2014) Hospice of Kits County provides an interdisciplinary team consisting of the doctor, the patient's primary provider and nurse practitioners, sitting nursing care, a medical social worker, a chaplain, a home health aide. Also provided are complementary services, which include massage and music therapies.Volunteers are also enlisted to help with such things as grocery shopping and the like or simply for company. These persons come to the patient's home for service. Hospice care differs with regional coverage. Durable medical equipment is also covered, so if Mrs.. Thomas is in need of a hospital bed, oxygen, bedside commode, wheel chair and so on, it will be provided at no cost to her family via Medicare coverage. Grief and loss counseling is also provided. â€Å"Hospice of kits,† ) Providers for home care must be explored as Mrs.. Thomas declines.Often the expense precludes coverage of duties in this way. Exploration of service providers and means of payment need to be explored as a way to cover Mrs.. Thomas' needs as she declines. Medicare covers the cost of a short term inpatient care in a Medicare approved hospice facility, or nursing home if the caregiver is suffering from caregiver strain (for up to five days) or if it is determined by the hospice physician that symptoms must be managed in an inpatient setting. Because Mrs.. Thomas has no Eng term care health insurance this care could be instrumental in providing for her final days. â€Å"Your Medicar e benefits,† 2014) The fourth nursing diagnosis, â€Å"Altered Family Processes† must be addressed for the holistic health of Mrs.. Thomas. This holistic care includes her husband as well as Mrs.. Thomas' sons and families. Situational crises can develop when a family member has a long term illness. There is a change in roles in caring for a parent and an anticipated loss of said parent. (Nurseries) Those involved need to learn to express feelings freely and demonstrate individual involvement. This individual involvement must include a problem solving process that promotes suitable solutions for the situation.Mrs.. Thomas' sons need to be contacted and requested to attend a family conference. If they are unable (because of finances or schedule) to attend then this could be accomplished via phone. They must understand the need of their mother to see them in person and will hopefully comply. The reality of the situation must be broached to them in a caring way. It may be that the Thomas' or Mrs.. Thomas can go and stay with them for more available for care and support of their mother. Speaking with family members in a caring, respectful manner and providing information both written and spoken helps promote feelings of empathy.It stimulates individual feelings of value and capability in ability to handle the present situation. In answering questions and providing information one can empower Mrs.. Thomas' loved ones. Identifying patterns of communication and interaction between family members is an important nursing intervention. It provides information about how active said communication is. It can also identify what problems may exist that interfere with the family in helping the patient and what problems there are in adjusting to the prognosis.Role expectations must be explored and how each individual sees the situation, in sharing these thoughts the family can promote understanding within its unit. Assessing the way members are expending their ene rgy with which to deal with the situation is needed so as to provide guidance in positive focus for the well-being of patient. Acknowledging the difficulty of the prognosis, as well as, encouraging appropriate expressions of anger helps resolution in the stages of grieving. The nurse must remain centered.Stressing the importance f continuing dialogue that is open and honest between the family members helps communication to remain open and thus facilitates problem resolution. Mr.. Thomas must be educated by the community health nurse as with regards to how anti- depressants need to maintain a certain blood level to be effective. If he is not taking them regularly this will not happen. To help achieve this goal, a pill box with days on it can be set up; perhaps an alarm set to the same time each day enlisted, so that he can remember to take his medication and thus be better able to function at this time.To provide holistic nursing care to Mrs.. Thomas her needs as a person must be add ressed. Physical, social and spiritual realms must be explored. Plans of action to provide for her physical care and the demise of her abilities must be explored; help must be sought out from the aforementioned sources. Method must be applied via nursing diagnosis and indications of said diagnosis. Desired outcomes must be planned, as well as nursing interventions to work toward these outcomes. Mrs.. Thomas must be approached with honesty and treated as a human being, with a life, in her time of need.

Euclid of Alexandria and His Contributions to Geometry

Euclid of Alexandria lived in 365-300 BC (approximately). Mathematicians usually refer to him simply as Euclid, but hes sometimes called Euclid of Alexandria to avoid confusion with the Green Socratic philosopher Euclid of Megara. Euclid of Alexandria is considered to be the Father of Geometry. Very little is known about Euclids life except that he taught in Alexandria, Egypt. He may have become educated at Platos Academy in Athens, or possibly from some of Platos students. He is an important historical figure because all of the rules we use in Geometry today are based on the writings of Euclid, specifically The Elements. The Elements includes the following Volumes: Volumes 1-6: Plane GeometryVolumes 7-9: Number TheoryVolume 10: Eudoxus Theory of Irrational NumbersVolumes 11-13: Solid Geometry The first edition of the Elements was actually printed in 1482 in a very logical, coherent framework. More than one thousand editions have been printed throughout the decades. Schools only stopped using the Elements in the early 1900s, some were still using it in the early 1980s, however, the theories continue to be those that we use today. Euclids book the Elements also contains the beginnings of number theory. The Euclidean algorithm, which is often referred to as Euclids algorithm, is used to determine the greatest common divisor (gcd) of two integers. It is one of the oldest algorithms known and was included in Euclids Elements. Euclids algorithm does not require factoring. Euclid also discusses perfect numbers, infinite prime numbers, and Mersenne primes (the Euclid-Euler theorem). The concepts presented in The Elements werent all original. Many of them had been proposed by earlier mathematicians. Possibly the greatest value of Euclids writings is that they present the ideas as a comprehensive, well-organized reference. The principals are supported by mathematical proofs, which geometry students learn even to this day. Main Contributions He is famous for his treatise on geometry: The Elements. The Elements makes Euclid one of if not the most famous mathematics teacher. The knowledge in the Elements has been the foundation for teachers of mathematics for over 2000 years Geometry tutorials wouldnt be possible without the work of Euclid. Famous Quote:  There is no royal road to geometry. In addition to his brilliant contributions to linear and planar geometry, Euclid wrote about number theory, rigor, perspective, conical geometry, and spherical geometry. Recommended Read Remarkable Mathematicians: The author of this book  profiles 60 famous mathematicians who were born between 1700 and 1910 and provides insight into their remarkable lives and their contributions to the field of math. This text is organized chronologically and provides interesting information about the details of the mathematicians lives. Euclidean Geometry vs Non-Euclidean Geometry At the time, and for many centuries, Euclids work was simply called geometry because it was assumed to be the only possible method of describing space and the position of figures. In the 19th century, other types of geometry were described. Now, Euclids work is called Euclidean geometry to distinguish it from the other methods. Edited by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.